In his Sevastopol Sketches, Tolstoy develops his ability to depict the reality of death within military conflict.

His proficiency stemmed from experience. Most notably, Tolstoy’s military service included three years in the Caucuses and action during the Crimean War (1853-56), both as a junior artillery officer.

During his time near Chechnya (north of Georgia and west of Dagestan), Tolstoy observed such brutal Russian tactics as punitive raids and the indiscriminate the shelling of small villages. He was also affected by the burning of forests to deny Chechens cover. This area hosts a Muslim population by reason of Ottoman influence. Russia has attempted to purge Chechens from what Russia claimed as a southern frontier multiple times and this area remains filled with tension – an inheritance of the aforementioned rivalry.

With respect to the Crimean War, in 1853, Czar Nicholas declared war on the Ottoman Empire, Russia’s historical rival. Nicholas asserted the obligation to protect Christians in Ottoman territory and reasserted land-claims in the Danubian principalities. Russian leadership has long-wished to retake Istanbul (Constantinople), which was a center of Christianity for centuries.

Napoleon III was at the forefront of the response to the Czar’s ambitions in 1853. A coalition (Turks, French & English) united to neutralize Russian expansion and protect the balance of power in Europe. It was hardly lost on Tolstoy that Russia served as a similar bulwark against Napoleon I. Tolstoy lived through the great humiliation of losing of the Crimean War but immortalized one of Russia’s great triumphs (repelling Napoleon I in 1812), which makes the great influences on him A Tale of Two Napoleons.

A thread through The Sevastopol Sketches and War & Peace is that Tolstoy conveys war's horrific nature. He does not glorify the subject.

The Sketches involve three vignettes of the Siege: November of 1854, May of 1855; and August of 1855. It was late in the Summer of 1855 when Sevastopol finally fell after an 11-month attack.

The Sketches read like a novella. The first takes the reader on tour of Sevastopol – from the relative safety of a particular bay, through an infirmary, marketplace, and finally toward the front line. Notably, we are taken inside the Assembly Hall -- a make-shift hospital that is filled with causalities and disease. Tolstoy then depicts the activity of soldiers and citizens. He discusses merchants going about their trade as well as carriage drivers delivering goods and transporting the dead.

The second vignette delves into the senseless vanity of war and pursuit of truth, which Tolstoy describes as the hero of any effort. The last and longest story provides a view of the end of the Siege, through the eyes of fictional brothers. We are given a glimpse of the spectacle of incoming and outgoing artillery, the charges of the allies, and the valiant defense.

Amidst the Crimean war, Czar Nicholas died in March of 1855 and Alexander II took the throne, who hold the reputation of a reformer. There was societal reflection that so much of the fighting was done by serfs tied to the land. These serfs were exposed to ideas of freedom and nationhood and there was a national reckoning that their system could not stand. The serfs (over 20 million souls) were freed in 1861.

Tolstoy also proceeds on one of his great explorations - regarding the cause of historical events. He finds that people hold the ultimate power and are somehow (all at once), ready to be moved. This is opposed to the theory a few great leaders move men.

Lastly, the experience of the Crimean War transformed Tolstoy from traditional patriot to an everlasting dissident.

The 1790 Siege of Izmail is profiled as Tolstoy builds this experience into War &Peace characters who advanced to leadership roles, most notably General Kutuzov.

The Siege was led by General Alexander Suvorov against an Ottoman stronghold near the mouth of the Danube and along the northwest coast of the Black Sea. The Russian and Ottoman empires spent centuries fighting for influence in this area. The loss of Izmail was a factor in the Ottomans leaving the North Black Sea region. While the Turks withdrew, the Muslim population who remained evidence their legacy.

Kutuzov played a pivotal role in the Siege and was almost killed. He both trained and led a contingent of men across a formidable moat to approach the fortress. Once the walls were actually reached, improvised ladders were utilized by Cossack reserves. Kutuzov himself fell back on multiple occasions and persevered as bodies fell around him. Notably, Kutuzov did not captain from the back -- but was in the thick-of-it as much as anybody. His generalship contributed to his rise in rank. He proved he could lead men to victory, even when they faced the gravest of odds.

Throughout the ordeal, the invaders took tremendous casualties from cannon fire. Once Izmael was breached, the Russians unleashed a savagery whose reputation has endured.

The War of the Third Coalition (1805) was a monumental loss for Russian forces, while the Siege (1790) was moment of national triumph, which was immortalized in poetry and song, including “Let the Thunder of Victory Rumble.” Tolstoy notably describes the fictional Timokhin (who led a mad charge against Murat’s attack at Shöngrabern) as a veteran of Izmail

It is the character of the men at Izmail (both brave and savage) that Tolstoy is trying to extoll, which would have been more apparent to late 19th century readers.

The infantry regiments caught unaware scattered in the woods amidst the French assault. Soldiers shouted, “Cut off!” - a most dangerous sentiment. “Surrounded?! We’re lost!” was the collective reply.

The General realized something that he, an officer of 22 years, would be held responsible. He forgot his standoff with the cavalry colonel. Tolstoy notes, “The moment of moral conviction, which decides the fate of battles had arrived. Would his soldiers attend to the desperate voice of their commander or continue their flight?” Despite his shouts, the soldiers continued to run about in a panic.

Nevertheless, there was a sea-change! The French disappeared as a special unit emerged from the woods -- Timokhin’s company, filled with sharpshooters.

Timokhin was previously singled out by Kutuzov for his participation in the Siege of Izmail in 1790. He recalled Timokhin had a penchant for drinking but was a good man. Tushin and Timokhin are fictional, but symbolic to how the Battle of Shöngrabern was a success. Timokhin, brandishing a sword, rushed at the enemy with such a mad determination, it inspired the rest.

His behavior was reminiscent of the historic Siege, which has honorable and horrific aspects. The effort repelled the Ottomans from a critical position. After taking heavy casualties, Russian forces rampaged the City. Many were raped and executed. The massacre troubled Kutuzov’s soul.

The story turns to Dólokhov, who also possessed the fighting spirt that repelled the French. Dólokhov, running beside Timokhin, killed a Frenchman and seized a surrendering officer – who he dragged to a superior. Dolokhov brazenly approached his commander. “The whole company can bear witness. I beg you will remember this!” Dólokhov then untied his handkerchief and exhibited his wound.

The story moves to Tushin’s battery. Critical support had been moved yet this battery continued firing. The French could not surmise anyone would fire from such an undefended position.

The French eventually countered but Tushin was absorbed in the task before him and his artilleryman admired his resolve. In a childlike glee, the men only noticed when balls fell among them, tearing apart both men and horses. The horses were replaced and wounded carried off, as their four guns turned against ten. Tushin’s companion officer had been killed and 17 of 40 from the battery were casualties. Still they were merry.

Tushin was in a feverish delirium. It seemed so long ago since he fired the first shot. He regarded the corner of the field he stood as familiar. He gave his guns nicknames. “Matvévna, dear old lady, don’t let me down!” He imagined himself as a god throwing cannon balls. Around him, his crew bustled; and they all looked at Tushin as a father.

Suddenly a voice of a staff officer yelled out: “Captain Tushin! Are you mad? You have twice been ordered to retreat...”

Tushin was taken out of the zone. A cannon ball caused the officer to duck. As he galloped off – he shouted “Retire! All to retire!”

A moment later, Prince Andrei arrived. As one ball after another landed, he felt a shudder. He delivered the order and tried to have the guns taken. Andrei and Tushin did not speak -- as both were busy securing the only two working cannons on a cart and moving them down a hill.

Andrei then told Tushin. “Well, till we meet again...” holding out his hand. “Good-bye, my dear fellow,” replied Tushin. “Dear Soul! Good-bye, my dear fellow!” and tears suddenly filled Tushin's eyes.

The Battle of Schöngrabern intensifies upon Murat’s breaking of the truce and resultant barrage of cannon fire.

General Bagratión and his contingent reached the highest point of the right flank then rode down to where musketry was heard. On account of smoke, they could barely see. They quickly encountered wounded. One man was dragged by two soldiers after a bullet pierced his throat. He was gurgling and spitting blood. Another walked aimlessly, groaning while swinging a limp arm. Blood streamed over his coat as if it poured from a bottle. His face showed fear rather than suffering.

Some soldiers were ascending the hill Bagration was descending. Despite the general’s presence, most were too disorganized to be deferential. Rows of friendly soldiers became visible through the smoke. One officer catching sight of Bagration shouted at a crowd of retreating soldiers to STOP retreating.

Shots drowned out the sound of voices. The air reeked of smoke. Some men were using their ramrods while others fired. The atmosphere was filled with the whistling of bullets.

The commander of one regiment, a thin, feeble elderly man with a pleasant smile and drooping eyelids, rode up to Bagration and welcomed him as a host does an honored guest. He reported that his regiment had been attacked by cavalry. He was unclear on whether the attack had been repulsed. He could not account for the troops entrusted to him and did know whether his regiment had merely broken up. This is insightful exposition of the Fog of War.

Prince Andrei was struck by the changed expression on Bagration’s face. It expressed a concentrated and happy resolution. That dull, sleepy expression was gone. He now had the steady eyes of a hawk. Bagration turned to an adjunct and ordered the calling up of two battalions of Chasseurs for reinforcement.

Bagration was urged to fall back - as he was in an extraordinarily dangerous situation. He gave another order to cease firing and re-form. While he was speaking, the smoke began to move as if drawn by an invisible hand. It became clear that the French were advancing.

Right near Bagration marched a company commander, a round-faced man, with a silly and happy expression— who had previously rushed out of the shed with Tushin. This fella was thinking of how dashing he would appear as he passed the commander. He was strutting like a peacock, inattentive to the surrounding danger.

A throng of soldiers with knapsacks and muskets marched in step. Each seemed to be repeating to himself, at each alternate step, “Left... left... left...” A cannon ball the flew over the heads of Bagration and his suite, falling into that very column, taking out a high number.

Bagratión rode around the ranks and dismounted. He gave the reins to a Cossack, handed over his felt coat, stretched his legs and set his cap straight. “Well done, lads!” exhorted Bagratión. “Glad to do our best, your ex’len-lency!”. “Forward, with God!” continued Bagratión, in a resolute, sonorous voice. Andrei felt that an invisible power was leading them all forward.

The head of the French column, with its officers at the vanguard, appeared from below the hill. The French were near. Andrei could distinguish their bandoliers, red epaulets and even their faces. Bagration gave no further orders and silently continued to walk in front of the ranks.

One shot after another rang out. Several men caught bullets, among them the round-faced officer who had just marched so gaily. One moment he was full of life and pride, the next, like so many through the ages, he was laid to waste.

Bagration looked round and shouted, “Hurrah!”

“Hurrah!!!" came the response, which shouted from the ranks, with men passing Bagration and racing one another on their horses. They rushed in an irregular but joyous manner down the hill at their foe.

Andrei examined the position of the French, focusing on a puff of smoke from the cannon that fired. Two mounted Frenchmen galloped up the hill while a small column headed down to strengthen their front line. Another puff appeared and it was clear - the Battle of Schöngrabern had begun!

A messenger just arrived with Bonaparte’s stern letter and Murat, humiliated, moved his forces to attack the center and outflank both Russian wings, hoping for a quick victory before Napoleon's arrival.

Andrei was reflecting on how his chance arrived to save the army! Tolstoy is asking us to consider if one man can accomplish this. Also worth considering: Was Napoleon more able to get men to this mindset? Or, are men led to victory by a more passive leader, like Kutuzov’s depiction? Tolstoy argues victors will also need Providence or chance. Who prevails is often impossible to know -- yet how we search for causes!

Not long before, the men had been enjoying a welcome respite - eating porridge and drinking vodka. Now, impending death was heralded by the movement of soldiers forming ranks. On their faces, Andrei recognized the eagerness that filled his own heart. It was “dreadful but enjoyable!” He demonstrated both confidence and ambition in thinking, “where and how will my Toulon present itself?”

Andrei noticed Bagration riding toward him wearing a Cossack cloak. Bagration recognized Andrei, who conveyed what he thought would be the proper strategy. Bagration remained stoic. Andrei wondered, “Is there anything at all behind that impassive face?” Bagration’s posture implied that everything that took place was exactly in accord with what he had foreseen. Andrei noticed Bagration’s saber, which was a gift from Gen. Alexander Suvorov. This detail is meant to show the historical connection between the generals as Bagration, during campaigns in Italy, was a trusted protégé of Suvorov.

Bagration headed toward Túshin’s battery. Andrei followed, along with Zherkov and other officers. Riding with them was a civilian with connections —an accountant. He was a stout, full-faced man with a naïve smile. He looked unusual among the hussars, Cossacks and adjutants. “He wants to see a battle,” said Zherkóv “but feels a pain in the pit of his stomach.” Enemy fire soon struck ground near them and a Cossack crashed to earth with his horse.

Cossacks, many from territories in Ukraine, suffered in high casualties. They expected to be rewarded for their service, with increased rights. Instead they found their rights diminished and felt marginalized. Many developed quite the national identity.

Prince Bagration did not demonstrate concern over the causality. He turned as if to say: “Is it worth-while noticing trifles?” He reached the battery and observed gunners working their cannons. Bagration called to Tushin, who replied with an awkward salute - looking like a priest giving a benediction. Though the original plan was for Túshin’s guns to strike the valley, he was firing at the village of Schöngrabern, in front of which masses of French were advancing.

It is profound that Tushin, a fictional character, is attributed making this critical decision. Tushin decided, “Lets hit 'em in the most sensible part!” “Very good!” noted Bagration in reply to learning what was happening. As Bagration examined the battlefield, he noticed French coming around the flank to the right and ordered two battalions to reinforce the vulnerable area.

Adjutants rode up with a messages on where the French were attacking and being contained. There was back-and-forth with these types of updates. Andrei was able to hear Bagratión’s colloquies and, to his surprise, noticed no orders were really given. This was not necessary historically accurate, but Tolstoy depicts it this way to show a “greater truth.”

Bagration made it appear that everything was done by necessity, or by the will of subordinate commanders AND if not by his direct command, at least in accord with his intentions.

Andrei realized that ALL of consequence that happened was due to chance and independent of the commander’s will. Nevertheless, owing to the tact Bagration showed, his presence was valuable. Officers who approached him with disturbed countenances became calm. Soldiers greeted him gaily and grew more cheerful in his presence and were anxious to display their courage.

This episode initially exams the lead-up to the Battle of Schöngraben. Murat and Lannes had led the capture of Vienna. However, Vienna was a symbolic prize as it was taken at the cost of pursuing Kutuzov and crushing his army.

Murat moved on towards the Austrian town of Hollabrunn to cut the Russian line of retreat and prevent them from reaching Znaim (Znojmo - a Czech city). Kutuzov was ultimately headed toward Olmutz (Olomouc – another Czech city). If Kutuzov could remain on the front-foot, he would link up with his Austrian allies. Upon leaving Krems, Napoleon and Kutuzov were fighting with their “feet.”

Kutuzov assigned Gen. Bagration to lead a rear guard of about 5-7K, meant to hold off the French. Murat (with about 10K) initiated a second gambit. He proposed a short truce as he was not sure of the size of Bagration’s forces and if it was combined with Kutuzov’s. Murat sought reinforcements of his own. His strategy was to hold all soldiers in place under the notion peace negotiations might head-off the impending battle. A separate Austrian contingent, under General Nostitz, accepted a similar offer and withdrew from Hollabrunn itself.

Historically, Murat’s terms were presented to Bagration as “Capitulation Offered by Russian Army.” It involved Russian forces leaving the field with their arms and heading home. Napoleon realized only the Czar could sign off on the entire army leaving. This was conveyed to Murat, who was compelled to attack. To Kutuzov, the delay was a godsend. His main force could get further ahead of the French but he would likely have to sacrifice his rear-guard.

This chapter places us within the truce. Andrei had just toured the camp at Schöngrabern, during which he encountered the fictional artillery commander, Captain Tushin.

Scholars attribute intelligent decisions to Bagration in positioning his troops and using the terrain. However, Tushin will emerge as the hero. Tolstoy captured the nobility of the unknown soldier. Tushin is, in essence, the forgotten man that gives his all to a cause. Tolstoy also uses Tushin to present the role of the unknown, or chance, in war. Tolstoy posits: How much can we know about a cause we try to attribute reason to?

Andrei made his way up to a battery from which the field could be seen. He could see how Bagration positioned his forces. On the opposite hill, was the village of Schöngraben, where French troops were amid smoke from their campfires. Andrei developed the skill of being able follow military movements and picture forthcoming events – and summarize them for a commander. Here, he noticed: his right flank was posted on a steep incline -- which dominated the French position. Infantry were stationed there as well as dragoons. The French line appeared wider and he recognized Bagration could be outflanked on both sides. Behind many of the Russian forces was a steep dip, making it difficult for artillery and cavalry to retire. Andrei thought it would be best to concentrate all artillery in the center and withdraw cavalry to a better spot.

Andrei then noticed a friendly conversation coming from a newly constructed shed. He was struck by the sincerity of the voice who turned out to be Tushin. “No, friend - what I say is that if it were possible to know what is beyond death, none of us would be afraid of it." Another, a younger voice, interrupted - “Afraid or not, you can’t escape it.” “All the same, one is afraid!,” interjected a third. Discussing of the nature of death before impending battle is quite poignant. These men are taking life as it comes, with grace.

They continue such banter by incorporating an artillery soldiers penchant for liquor and snacks. Just as Andrei realizes, with pleasure, “that’s the captain who stood up in the sutler’s hut without his boots,” there was a whistle of a cannon and the ball thudded into the ground near the shed with super human force. The ground seemed to groan at the impact. Immediately Tushin, with his short pipe in the corner of his mouth, rushed out of the shed to face the danger.

This episode is final installment with Prof. Mikaberidze. He discusses the nature of the Holy Roman Empire (HRE) and how the Napoleonic Wars, at least politically, marked Medieval Times giving way to Modern Age in Central Europe.

Before 1805, was no Germany but the HRE, a commonwealth of over 300 subdivisions of mostly German-speaking states. This included kingdoms, free states, duchies, and bishoprics. The Emperor was elected by nine rulers of the more influential states. From the 16th Century onward, each Emperor came from the Habsburg family, which resulted in Habsburgs running Austria and overseeing the Empire. Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, Baden, Württemberg and Hanover where among the more influential states.

The relationships of the panoply of states was impacted by competition and alliances in accord with tastes of the times. Each state was generally self-sufficient. If the Emperor requested, troops could be sent for a common cause for a delineated term. Importantly, there was not a Germanic army loyal to the Emperor. This was their “separation of powers." Other large powers exploited this -- as French Kings did during the 30 Years War and Napoleon did as well.

The HRE existed for about 1000 years, if you measure it from Pope Leo crowning Charlemagne in 800 A.D., or 850 years from Pope John XII crowning Otto in 962. In any event, it all ends in1805, in the wake of the Battle of Austerlitz. Through victory, Napoleon restructures the old institution into something new, namely the Confederation of the Rhine, which had 39 states.

We also discuss the “Glorious Retreat,” a term the professor uses in an ironic sense. This phrase was born in 19th century Russia and heavily promoted in Soviet times, where Kutuzov was extolled as a genius. Granted, what is depicted in Part II of Book I was a wise retreat where Kutuzov never allowed his forces to get out-worked and surrounded like General Mack at Ulm. However, the events of 1805 were a significant loss for the Russian Empire with minimal “glory” A re-characterization was the method to find a silver lining. The Russians promoted their continued escape and placed the blame on “treacherous” Austrians. They cherry-picked certain efforts, like in Krems, and celebrated Bagration. The Professor also touches on how formal military rules were flouted, and officers, at times, would travel with their wives, and come up with creative excuses for the breach.

Prof. Mikaberidze later gives an overview of some of the various Cossacks to populate the Russian Empire in the early 19th Century. He also references whether Napoleon missed an opportunity of allying with the population of territories taken by Russia during the partitions of Poland (the final one formalized in 1797), which was within memory of much of the population Napoleon encountered when he march East. For example, when reached Vilnius in 1812, he was met with widespread acclaim. He also marched through (what is today) Belarus and northern Ukraine. As some of these areas were acquired forcefully 20 years before, Napoleon may have been able to recruit more of the local population with skillful outreach. It is also an interesting question as to whether masses of Ukrainian and Lithuanian peasantry would have assisted him.

We close by discussing the transcendent nature of War & Peace.