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John Locke (1632–1704), a key figure of the Enlightenment, is known for his contributions to philosophy, politics, and epistemology.

His Essay Concerning Human Understanding introduces the concept of the tabula rasa, arguing that the mind begins as a blank slate, acquiring knowledge solely through experience. This empiricist view challenged traditional notions of innate ideas, such as Plato’s Forms or the Christian doctrine of original sin.

A Letter Concerning Toleration further advocated the separation of church and state, promoting religious freedom as essential to individual and societal well-being.

Locke’s political philosophy, most notably in Two Treatises of Government, laid the foundation for modern liberal democracy. He emphasized natural rights—life, liberty, and property—and argued that governments derive legitimacy from the consent of the governed, not divine authority. This is the text from which the chapter we will be looking at today originates.

Thomas Paine (1737-1809) emerged from a modest and often unsuccessful early life to become one of the most influential voices of revolutionary and liberal thought. His fiery pamphlet Common Sense rallied support for the American Revolution, even being read aloud to troops during their fight against British rule. Paine’s subsequent work, The Rights of Man, inspired generations of liberals by denouncing monarchy as a “fraud and imposition” and advocating for radical reform. Rejecting tradition for its own sake, Paine criticized gradual reformists as condescending elites who “pity the plumage, but forget the dying bird,” emphasizing the need for transformative change to address systemic inequalities.

Paine’s writings resonated with the working class, urging them to claim their rights rather than petition for them. For him, reason was the cornerstone of society, and tradition without justification was mere ignorance. His radical ideas foreshadowed the slow evolution of the liberal social contract, culminating in the gradual expansion of suffrage through reforms in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Though incremental change followed his era, Paine’s commitment to reason over ritual and ideals over ignorance set the stage for modern democratic thought.